Philosophical aspects of science

PHILOSOPHICAL  ASPECTS 

OF SCIENCE

Philosophy is a Greek word. In here Philo means love and Sophia means wisdom. Therefore the meaning of the word philosophy is the love of wisdom. Simply we can say philosophy is the study of thinking. 

We learned many topics under the philosophy of science. such as, Introduction to philosophy, The way to argue, learning, Testimony, ethics ,Race, ethnicity and culture, Gender justice, scientific explanation.

INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY

There are four main branches of philosophy. They are,

•  logic
•  axiology
•  epistemology
•  metaphysics

Logic means reasoning. In axiology is the branch that considers the study of principles and values. Epistemology discusses how people come to learn what they know. Metaphysics is a branch that discusses the universe and the nature of ultimate reality. Philosophers are the people who offer views or theories on philosophy and studying philosophy. Plato, Aristotle, Rene Descartes are some famous philosophers. Lord Buda also can be considered as a philosopher.

Under philosophy, we study the nature of knowledge, reality, existence, and logic. Is philosophy the same as science or they are different? Philosophy is based on thinking and reasoning. And science is based on the scientific method. In the scientific method, we look for reasons based on observations. To get a conclusion, we have to do experiments as well as we have to think while reasoning. By considering that fact we can get the idea that there is a connection between science and philosophy.

                                  THE WAY TO ARGUE

Argument is a set of statements. It include premises and conclusions. The argument has two purposes. They are justification and explanation. Justification and explanation provide reasons. We need a media to make our arguments. It is language. We present our arguments with the help of language. There are three basic features of language. The first one is language is conventional. The second one is the use of language are diverse. The third one is the meaning is conveyed indirectly.

                                  LEARNING

Learning begins at birth. Step by step, we learn to eat, drink, talk, walk and much more. We learn new things day by day. But we cannot remember everything. But we still remember some songs and poems we sang when we were little. We did not study those things with difficulty. Things used in everyday life. There must be a reason for that. Everything we learn first goes into short-term memory. What we learn goes into long-term memory through practicing. Better learning does not always require more effort or more time. Only need is a good method. 

PHILOSOPHY OF TESTIMONY

Testimony has different definitions. In low testimony is an “Oral or written evidence given by a competent witness, under oath, at trial or in an affidavit or deposition.” Christians use the term “to give one's testimony" to mean "to tell the story of how one became a Christian". But in analytical philosophy, expression is used as a label for the process of gaining knowledge or trust, usually by understanding and believing other people's speeches or written records, regardless of setting. Testimony enables the spread of current news, information, people opinions, and gossip throughout a society. In modern society testimony is a major source of faith. It also protects the heritage of our accumulated knowledge and beliefs in history, geography, sciences, and technology.

                                           ethics

 Ethics is a branch of philosophy. It includes the regularization, protection, and recommendation of concepts of right and wrong. What is Ethics and what is not ethics? Different people interpreted ethics in different ways at different times. Some spoke of ethics as about sex, while others spoke of ethics are based on religion. Some say that ethics does not apply to the real world. But ethics is not all of this. Ethics is the discipline of what is morally good and bad and what is morally right and wrong. This term applies to any system or theory of moral values or principles.

RACE, ETHNICITY AND CULTURE

Race, culture and ethnicity are three words that we often hear in our daily lives. Are these words synonyms? No, they are not synonyms. Race and ethnicity are used to classify certain sections of the population. Basically, race describes physical characteristics and ethnicity is cultural identity. Race is something you learn and culture can be identified as something you inherit. Next Racism. We can define it as an evil. Unpleasant thing.

GENDER JUSTICE

Gender justice is a human right. Every woman and girl has the right to live with dignity and freedom without any fear. Understanding it involves the sharing of power and responsibility between men and women at home, in the workplace, and in wider national and international communities

                             SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION

An explanation is a set of statements usually constructed to describe a set of facts which clarifies the causes, context, and consequences of those facts. This description may establish rules or laws, and may clarify the existing rules or laws in relation to any objects, or phenomena examined. Simply put, a scientific explanation is a way of explaining what we see in the natural world based on observations and measurements. For example, why do objects fall to the ground? We know that it is due to the gravitational force. Ever objects in earth is attracted to the ground because of this force. There are many types of scientific explanations, such as,

• ·        Deductive model explanation
• ·        Probabilistic explanation
• ·        Functional or teleological explanation
• ·        Causal Theories of Explanation
  

SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY, SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND HYPOTHESIS

 SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY, SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND HYPOTHESIS

This article mainly describe about Scientific Method and Scientific Inquiry and Hypothesis. Scientific method is define as, a series of steps followed by scientific investigations to answer specific questions about the natural world. Scientific inquiry refers to the diverse ways in which scientists study the natural world and propose explanations based on the evidence derived from their work. A hypothesis is a potential answer to the question, one that can somehow be tested.

 

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY

Scientific Method and Scientific Inquiry are not same. There are differences between Scientific Method and Scientific Inquiry

First one is that, the scientific method has a linear or defined order. But scientific inquiry has no such a linear or defined order. The second difference is that, the scientific method answers a single posed question. But scientific inquiry may end up generating more questions. Another difference is that, the results of scientific method may be communicated at the conclusion of the experiment. But in scientific inquiry communication is a key component throughout.

 

Scientific method

The scientific method was first outlined by Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626). We can simply define the scientific method as a series of steps followed by scientific investigations to answer specific questions about the natural world. There are four basic steps in scientific method. They are,

·        Make an observation.

·        Ask a question.

·        Form a hypothesis, or testable explanation.

·        Make a prediction based on the hypothesis.

·        Test the prediction.

·        Use the results to make new hypotheses or predictions.

 

                                                                       Scientific Inquiry

 

Science is learning and understanding something new. Inquiry means asking for information or investigating something to find out more. Therefore, scientific inquiry is the use of evidence from observations and investigations to provide logical explanations and answers to questions.

Scientific inquiry have two functions: first, to provide a descriptive account of how scientific inquiry is carried out in practice, and second, to provide an explanatory account of why scientific inquiry succeeds as well as it appears to do in arriving at genuine knowledge. [2]

 

HYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis is a potential answer to the question, one that can somehow be tested. This hypothesis is not necessarily the right explanation. Instead, it's a possible explanation that we can test to see if it is likely correct, or if we need to make a new hypothesis. [4]

There are many types of hypothesis. They are,

·        Simple Hypothesis.

·        Complex Hypothesis.

·        Directional Hypothesis.

·        Non-directional Hypothesis.

·        Associative and Causal Hypothesis.

·        Null Hypothesis.

·        Alternative Hypothesis.

REFERENCES

1. Hempel, C.G., 1966. Philosophy of Natural Science. Printice Hall. Inc., Englewood Cliffs.
2. Models of scientific inquiry https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Models_of_scientific_inquiry
3. Scientific method,  https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/the-scientific-method/#:~:text=The%20basic%20steps%20of%20the,conclusions%20and%20refine%20the%20hypothesis.&text=Critical%20thinking%20is%20a%20key,logic%20to%20come%20to%20conclusions.
4. Scientific method, https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/intro-to-biology/science-of-biology/a/the-science-of-biology

SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION

 

This article mainly describe about scientific explanation. Before we study about scientific explanation, we must know what is mean by explanation and we must know other types of explanation. Then we can study about scientific explanation. What is scientific explanation? Simply put, a scientific explanation is a way of explaining what we see in the natural world based on observations and measurements. Then what are the types of scientific explanation.

EXPLANATION

An explanation is a set of statements usually constructed to describe a set of facts which clarifies the causes, context, and consequences of those facts. This description may establish rules or laws, and may clarify the existing rules or laws in relation to any objects, or phenomena examined. [2]

 

Difference between explanation and confirmation

Explanation is the process or process of making something clear or easy to understand. A confirmation provides proof that something is true.

 

SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION

Simply put, a scientific explanation is a way of explaining what we see in the natural world based on observations and measurements. For example, why do objects fall to the ground? We know that it is due to the gravitational force. Ever objects in earth is attracted to the ground because of this force.

 

OTHER KINDS OF EXPLANATION

There are many different explanations in addition to what we classify as scientific. For example, how to do we use a new phone, or how to find a certain address in a strange city.

Other examples of other types of explanations include artistic interpretation, mathematical evidence, and historical explanations.

By considering above examples we can say that the word "explanation" is extremely broad and it applies to a great many different things.

 

IS THERE ANY SUCH THING AS SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATION?

The idea that science can furnish explanations of various phenomena goes back to Aristotle (4th century b.c.), and it has been reaffirmed by many philosophers and scientists since then. [1]

But some scientists and philosophers rejected this. And they said that, science can describe natural phenomena and predict future occurrences, but it cannot furnish explanations.

Karl R. Popper (1935), Karl G. Hempel (1948), r. B. Braithwaite (1953), and Ernest Nagel (1961) published important books in which they maintained that there are such things as legitimate scientific explanations. [1]

 

TYPES OF SCIENTIFIC EXPLANATIONS.

There are many types of scientific explanations, such as,

• Deductive model explanation
• Probabilistic explanation
• Functional or teleological explanation
• Causal Theories of Explanation

REFERENCES

1. Salmon, M.H. and Glymour, C., 1999. Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. Hackett Publishing.
2. Explanation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explanation#Scientific_explanation
3. What are the four types of scientific explanations? https://www.preservearticles.com/education/what-are-the-four-types-of-scientific-explanations/12139

GENDER JUSTICE

 

GENDER JUSTICE

Gender justice is a human right. Every woman and girl has the right to live with dignity and freedom without any fear. Understanding it involves the sharing of power and responsibility between men and women at home, in the workplace, and in wider national and international communities. This article first discuss briefly about the questions of gender justice. What determines whether a society is gender just? How should we conceive of gender justice? When will we reach a society that is gender just, or is perhaps our current society already gender just? [1] The next section is based on a theoretical and empirical understanding of political philosophy, social and cognitive psychology, sociology and economics. The following section presents the feasibility approach as the standard basis for interpersonal comparisons that help assess gender equality. The next section proposes three principles of gender justice that society can use to determine whether gender is fair.

THE QUESTION OF GENDER JUSTICE

Inequality in gender is not only a topic but also a matter of controversy. Deborah Rhode argues that unfair inequalities between women and men no longer exist. But others deny this. They say that women are the victims of social injustice and inequality.

What determines whether a society is gender just? For its specifics on issues of gender, it requires a conceptualization of gender and a few minimal principles of justice.

 

CONCEPTUALIZING GENDER

Gender is the recognition of the characteristics and differences between femininity and masculinity. Depending on the context, these traits may include biological sexuality, gender-based social structures, or gender identity.3

 

 

GENDER JUSTICE AND CAPABILITIES

Gender justice compares the inequality between men and women on the dimension of a person’s abilities, the real freedom she has to choose a life that has reason to appreciate it. These organisms and activities are called individual activities, and include more complex and specific activities, such as being healthy, being cared for, not being mentally ill, maintaining valuable social relationships, and integrating a job with family life. These activities and effective opportunities for a person to understand these situations.

 

 

THREE PRINCIPLES OF GENDER JUSTICE

There are three principles of Gender justice. They are, 

1. The capability sets for men and women should be the same. The only inequalities between men and women that are justified are those (a) that are (directly or indirectly) due to sex differences that are not gender differences, and (b) which cannot be rectified by human intervention. [1]
2. The constraints on choice from the capability set should not be structured according to morally        irrelevant characteristics, such as gender. [1]
3. The ‘pay-offs’ of the different options in the capability set need to be justified and should not be gender biased [1] 

REFERENCES

 

1.  [1] Robeyns, I.A.M., 2007. When will society be gender just?. Browne, J.(ed.), The Future of Gender, pp.54-74. 
2. [2] Sibley, C.G., 2015. Julia C. Becker. Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination, p.315. 
3. Gender https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender

RACE, ETHNICITY AND CULTURE

 RACE,  ETHNICITY  AND   CULTURE

Race, culture and ethnicity are three words that we often hear in our daily lives. Are these words synonyms? No, they are not synonyms. Race and ethnicity are used to classify certain sections of the population. Basically, race describes physical characteristics and ethnicity is cultural identity. Race is something you learn and culture can be identified as something you inherit. Next Racism. We can define it as an evil. Unpleasant thing.

      ARE RACE, ETHNICITY AND CULTURE SYNONYMS?

Race, ethnicity and culture can’t consider as synonyms. They are different. Many people misunderstand that race and ethnicity are one and the same. But there are many differences between race and ethnicity. Race is a very narrow subject. It was based on similar physical and biological properties. But ethnicity is a very broad subject. It is based on cultural expression and starting point.

Culture includes race and ethnicity, but transcends those identities. Race, ethnicity, nationality, gender, sexual orientation and social class are different aspects of our personal identity and we use membership with others to create a common cultural identity:

                                                                         

RACE AND RACISM

Race is the idea that human species are divided into different groups based on inherited physical and behavioral differences.

Racism is seen as an expression of deep moral impotence. It is not considered another ideological ideology, like liberalism, Conservatism. It is inherently perceived as evil.

 The human race

Here we can get specialist advice to biology and especially human genetics. With regard to the unity of mankind, scientific observation confirms that Homo sapiens is a single species. To ensure that there are all sorts of endemic variations within the species, many of them seem to have emerged in response to adaptation to specific habitats from several generations; Moreover, at least some of these adaptations have made more or less observable changes in physical appearance. Even so, people of all races, colors and appearances can successfully breed with each other, and the children of all such unions are fertile. [1]

 

 

ETHNICITY

Ethnicity is a broader term than race. This term is used to classify groups of people according to their cultural expression and identity. Common features such as ethnic, national, ethnic, religious, linguistic or cultural origins can be used to describe one's ethnicity.

 

CULTURE

Culture includes the social behaviors and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, abilities, and habits of individuals within these groups. People acquire culture through the learning processes of pools and socialization.

 

Prejudice

Prejudice is an assumption or opinion about someone based on the membership of that person for a group. For example, someone of a different ethnicity, gender, or religion may be prejudiced.

          

            REFERENCES

1.        [1] Ballard, R., 2002. Race, ethnicity and culture.
2. [3] Pandey, G., 2013. "Prejudice as Difference" in A history of prejudice: Race, caste, and difference in India and the United States. Cambridge University Press.
3. Difference between race ethnicity. https://www.verywellmind.com/difference-between-race-and-ethnicity-5074205#:~:text=Race%20and%20ethnicity%20are%20used,ethnicity%20is%20something%20you%20learn

Ethics

                                     

                                       What ethics is

Ethics is a branch of philosophy. It includes the regularization, protection, and recommendation of concepts of right and wrong. What is Ethics and what is not ethics? Ethics is not Primarily About Sex, Ethics is not ‘Good in Theory but not in Practice’, Ethics is not Based on Religion, Ethics is not Relative to the Society in which You Live, Ethics is not Merely a Matter of Subjective Taste or Opinion. If so what is Ethics? This article describe about these questions. And next Hedonism. This word is derived from the Greek word hedone. It means “pleasure"

 WHAT ETHICS IS NOt

Different people interpreted ethics in different ways at different times. Some spoke of ethics as about sex, while others spoke of ethics are based on religion. Some say that ethics does not apply to the real world. But ethics is not all of this.

   Ethics is not Primarily About Sex

There was a time, around the 1950s, people think, ethics is a set of prohibitions particularly concerned with sex. But ethics is not sex.

           Ethics is not ‘Good in Theory but not in Practice’

Ethics is not ‘Good in Theory but not in Practice’. Sometimes people think that, ethic is only a theory and not practical. And it is not applicable to the real world. It is only a set of simple rules.  Those who think of ethics as a set of rules, can save their status by finding more complex and more specific rules that do not conflict with each other, or by hierarchizing the rules of a hierarchical structure to resolve conflicts between them.

        Ethics is not Based on Religion

Third, ethics is not something that can be understood only in the context of religion. Some theologians say that ethics is impossible without religion. Because 'good' means nothing but 'what god approves'. But people like Plato refused this idea. Traditionally, religion thought that the more important connection between religion and ethics would provide a reason to do what was right. It is clear from the daily findings, that moral conduct does not require a belief in heaven and hell, on the other hand, belief in heaven and hell does not always lead to moral conduct.

   Ethics is not Relative to the Society in which You Live

Ethics is not a relative or subjective. We often think first and foremost that ethics is relative to the society in which we live. This is true in one sense and false in another. As an example, casual sex is wrong when it leads to the existence of children who are not adequately cared for and who are not at fault. A definite principle such as 'casual sex is wrong' can be relative to time and place. But such a printer is objectively consistent with falsehood when it claims to apply to all instances of casual sex.

          Ethics is not Merely a Matter of Subjective Taste or Opinion

Some say that ethics is subjective. Ethical subjectivism at least avoids making nonsense of the valiant efforts of would-be moral reformers, because it depends on the approval or displeasure of the person who makes the moral judgments rather than the society of that person.

 

  

                 WHAT ETHICS IS

Ethics is the discipline of what is morally good and bad and what is morally right and wrong. This term applies to any system or theory of moral values or principles.

How should we live? Do we aim for happiness or knowledge? If we choose happiness, will it be ours or the happiness of all? Is it justifiable to live a rich life while starving people elsewhere in the world? Is it fair to go to war when innocent people are likely to be killed? Is it wrong to clone a human or destroy a human embryo in medical research?

Ethics deals with such issues at all levels. Its subject matter consists of the basics of practical decision making, the main points of which are the nature of the final value and the standards by which human actions can be judged right or wrong.

                             HEDONISM

The word Hedonism means happy or pleasure. It is a family of theories. What they all have in common is that fun plays a central role in them.

REFERENCES

1.            Singer, Peter. "About Ethics" in Practical ethics. Cambridge university press, 2011 (p. 1-15).

2.           Ethics, https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy

3.            Shafer-Landau, R., "Hedonism: its powerful appeal", in The fundamentals of ethics 2012 (p. 21-             56).   Oxford: Oxford University Press.